- A study of federal education data found that Black students were punished more than their peers in 99% of comparisons.
- Even preschool-aged Black students face disproportionately high suspension and expulsion rates.
- Exclusionary discipline practices are often worse in wealthier schools and alternative education settings.
- Despite policy efforts, implicit bias and inconsistent implementation contribute to ongoing discipline disparities.
- Restorative justice programs and bias training for educators are among the most effective solutions for reducing disparities.
Racial disparities in school discipline remain a deeply troubling issue in the U.S. education system, impacting millions of Black students each year. Despite various policy reforms and efforts to address these inequities, Black students remain significantly more likely than their peers to face suspensions, expulsions, and law enforcement referrals. A groundbreaking study in AERA Open provides extensive data on how racial bias in education continues to shape discipline practices, with consequences that extend beyond the classroom. This article examines the key findings, the long-term effects of these disparities, and potential solutions for creating fairer school discipline policies.
Research Findings on Racial Bias in School Discipline
A comprehensive study by Darling-Hammond & Ho (2024) analyzed federal data from the U.S. Department of Education, spanning the 2017–2018 and 2020–2021 school years. The scope of the research was vast, including over 1,000 comparisons of disciplinary actions against Black students versus their peers. The results were stark: in 99% of these comparisons, Black students were disproportionately disciplined.
These disparities were observed across every grade level, from preschool to high school. Moreover, the research confirmed that racial bias in school discipline is not confined to any single type of school—whether urban, suburban, rural, well-funded, or underfunded, the trend remained consistent.
Consistent Disparities Across School Types
Even in schools that served wealthier student populations, Black students were found to receive harsher punishments at higher rates. This finding challenges common assumptions that racial disparities in discipline exist primarily in struggling, underfunded schools; instead, it suggests that implicit bias in disciplinary decisions is a systemic issue across all educational environments.
Forms of Punishment Where Black Students Are Overrepresented
The study highlighted several key disciplinary measures where Black students face significantly higher rates of punishment
Suspensions and Expulsions
- In-school suspensions: Black students are 2.5 times more likely to receive in-school suspensions than their White peers.
- Out-of-school suspensions: The rate climbs even higher, with Black students being 3.6 times more likely to receive out-of-school suspensions.
- Expulsions: The data revealed that Black students are 3.4 times more likely to be expelled from school.
These disciplinary actions have serious consequences, removing students from the educational environment and often leading to academic disengagement.
Law Enforcement Involvement and the School-to-Prison Pipeline
Black students are disproportionately referred to law enforcement and arrested for school-related incidents, fueling the troubling phenomenon known as the school-to-prison pipeline. Increased interaction with law enforcement at a young age can heighten the risk of future criminal justice involvement.
Preschool Suspensions: A Disturbing Trend
Alarmingly, even at the preschool level, Black children experience higher rates of suspensions and expulsions. This early exposure to exclusionary discipline sets a troubling precedent, leading to long-term negative academic and emotional outcomes.
Disparities in Wealthier and Alternative Schools
Unexpected Trends in Wealthier Schools
Counter to expectations, the study found that racial discipline disparities were often stronger in wealthier school districts. Black students in these schools were far more likely to face expulsions, indicating that privilege in school funding does not necessarily translate to fairness in disciplinary outcomes.
Alternative Schools and Corporal Punishment
Alternative schools, which primarily serve students removed from traditional educational settings, exhibited extreme disciplinary disparities. The research found that Black students in these settings were 15 times more likely than White students to experience corporal punishment—one of the most severe forms of disciplinary action still used in some parts of the U.S.
These findings highlight how school discipline systems may not only punish Black students more frequently but also subject them to disproportionately harsher penalties, regardless of the type of school they attend.
The Psychological and Social Costs of Exclusionary Discipline
The consequences of exclusionary discipline extend well beyond the classroom. Research has established strong links between school punishments and several negative social and psychological outcomes, including
Academics and Future Success
- Repeated suspensions and expulsions contribute to missed instructional time, leading to lower academic achievement and higher dropout rates.
- Students excluded from school are more likely to develop lower self-esteem and disengage from their education.
Mental Health and Well-being
- Exposure to constant punitive measures increases the risk of depression, anxiety, and behavioral issues.
- Feelings of isolation and stigma can emerge, especially if students perceive the discipline as unfair.
The School-to-Prison Pipeline
- Harsh disciplinary actions, particularly those that involve law enforcement, increase the likelihood of future incarceration.
- Schools that rely heavily on exclusionary discipline often funnel marginalized students into the criminal justice system rather than providing support and intervention (Skiba, Arredondo, & Williams, 2014).
Why Have Policy Changes Failed to Close the Discipline Gap?
Despite reforms aimed at reducing school discipline disparities, progress has been slow. Some key obstacles include
Implicit Bias in Disciplinary Decisions
Educators, often without conscious intent, may perceive Black students’ behavior as more disruptive or threatening, leading to disproportionately harsh punishments. Implicit biases are deeply embedded and require intentional efforts to address.
Inconsistent Implementation of Restorative Practices
Many progressive discipline policies, such as restorative justice programs, have been introduced to replace overly punitive measures. However, the success of these programs depends on proper training and consistent implementation—something that is currently lacking in many districts.
Structural Resistance to Change
Some teachers and administrators express concerns that reducing suspensions or expulsions may lead to classroom management challenges. Without buy-in from educators, disciplinary reforms often fail to produce meaningful results.
The Need for More Comprehensive Solutions
To address racial bias in school discipline effectively, a multi-faceted approach is required. The most promising solutions include
Restorative Justice Programs
Restorative justice focuses on conflict resolution and repairing harm rather than punitive measures. Schools that adopt these programs have reported lower suspension rates and improved student relationships.
Implicit Bias Training for Educators
Training for teachers and administrators can help them recognize and counteract unconscious biases, leading to fairer disciplinary decisions.
Stronger Community Engagement
- Schools should involve parents and community leaders in discussions about disciplinary policies.
- Transparency in disciplinary outcomes can ensure accountability and fair treatment for all students.
The Future of Equitable School Discipline
Developing data-driven policies will be key to eliminating school discipline disparities. Further research is necessary to track long-term outcomes and ensure that new approaches are effectively reducing bias and supporting students.
Educators, parents, and policymakers must work together to prioritize education over punishment, ensuring that schools become safe, supportive environments for all students.
Conclusion: The Urgency of Reform
The evidence is undeniable—Black students face significantly higher rates of punishment in schools, even when accounting for external factors. These disparities have serious long-term consequences, including academic struggles, mental health issues, and increased risk of involvement with the criminal justice system.
To create a fair and just educational system, schools must move away from punitive discipline models and embrace equitable, evidence-based practices that support students rather than exclude them.
Citations
- Darling-Hammond, S., & Ho, E. (2024). No Matter How You Slice It, Black Students Are Punished More: The Persistence and Pervasiveness of Discipline Disparities. AERA Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/23328584241293411
- Government Accountability Office. (2018). Discipline Disparities for Black Students, Boys, and Students with Disabilities.
- Skiba, R. J., Arredondo, M. I., & Williams, N. T. (2014). More Than a Metaphor: The Contribution of Exclusionary Discipline to a School-to-Prison Pipeline. Equity & Excellence in Education, 47(4), 546-564.
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