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- Political extremism increases protest participation regardless of ideological alignment.
- Anger is the strongest emotional predictor of collective action in both far-left and far-right activists.
- Centrists exhibit less emotional intensity and are less likely to engage in political activism.
- Far-left and far-right share psychological features like rigidity and black-and-white thinking.
- Cultural context significantly affects how political extremism and activism manifest.
Political polarization often paints a simple left-versus-right battle. But there’s an interesting idea: what if the far-left and far-right—ideological enemies—aren’t so different after all? Horseshoe theory suggests that the far-left and far-right, despite being enemies, might be similar. This is because of shared emotions and actions, not shared beliefs. Usually, we think of politics as a line, with left and right at opposite ends. But the political spectrum might be more like a horseshoe. This means the far-left and far-right are actually closer to each other than they are to the middle, when it comes to how they think, what they do, and how they feel. Recent psychological research helps us understand this idea better. It also tells us more about activism and the emotions that drive it.
Understanding the Horseshoe Theory
The horseshoe theory is a political idea that says far-left and far-right groups, even though they have different values, act and react emotionally in similar ways. This theory is different from the usual idea of a line where left and right are on opposite sides. Instead, when political views become extreme, they start to come back together, like a horseshoe shape. The main point is that certain psychological and action traits—like wanting to control others, seeing things as only good or bad, and not liking middle-ground politics—might be common across extreme groups, no matter what they believe.
Origins and Historical Context
This theory became well-known through political talks in the 20th century. Later, it came up again in discussions about political division, both in schools and among the public. French philosopher Jean-Pierre Faye is often credited with coming up with the idea, though who exactly started it is debated. Horseshoe theory has often caused disagreements. Critics say it wrongly compares things like fighting fascism to fascism itself. But supporters say that the similar actions they take—like protest methods, quick emotions, and not accepting different opinions—happen too often to ignore.
Today, especially as democracies deal with more political division and extremism, horseshoe theory gives us a way to see how not trusting groups, feeling a moral need to act fast, and group anger can show up in groups with opposite beliefs—yet look surprisingly similar.
New Psychological Study in France: Research Overview
A recent study in Political Psychology looked at real examples of political extremism by studying protest actions in France. Researchers wanted to test the horseshoe theory and also study how emotions affect group political actions.
Study Setup: Two Protest Movements
The study looked closely at two big French protest groups with opposite political sides
- Right-Wing: COVID-19 Restriction Protests
- People involved: 1,386 individuals
- Position: Against health rules, showing a conservative/libertarian distrust of government power.
- Left-Wing: Pension Reform Protests
- People involved: 418 individuals
- Position: Against budget cuts, opposing new pension rules, based on worker and socialist values.
Everyone in the study filled out surveys that asked about
- Political views and how extreme they were on a left-right scale.
- Emotional states: anger, fear, hope.
- How willing they were to take action (like going to, planning, or helping protests).
- Whether they actually joined in and other signs of group action.
The researchers wanted to find common psychological traits across political extremes and compare them to moderate people who agreed with the protest cause but had middle-of-the-road views.
Key Finding: A “U”-Shaped Model of Political Participation
Instead of seeing activism only increase among people who strongly agreed with the protest cause, the study found a U-shape in participation—a real-world sign of horseshoe theory. This means
- People on the far-left or far-right were more likely to be active.
- Moderates, no matter which side, were less likely to act.
This pattern shows that political extremism—not just agreeing with the cause—is a main reason for protest actions. Even people whose general political views didn’t fully match a cause were more likely to act if they were at the extreme ends of the spectrum.
Interpretation
The most politically extreme people were ready for group action because of
- Stronger emotions
- Feeling that their group identity or moral beliefs were threatened
- Dislike and distrust of established systems
This supports horseshoe theory by saying that normal political differences aren’t enough to explain activism. We also need to think about psychology—especially emotions and ways of thinking—as a key factor.
The Role of Emotion in Political Extremism
Of all the things studied, emotions, especially anger, were the strongest sign of political action among extreme groups. Emotions are not just side effects of beliefs. They are forces that shape actions, strengthen group identity, and drive public protest.
Why Anger Fuels Protest
- Anger gets people moving. It makes things feel urgent and makes people less willing to wait or compromise.
- In the brain, anger makes people less afraid of risk and more impulsive—which helps in protests.
- It simplifies things, removing complex details from political issues and creating an “us vs. them” way of thinking.
In both kinds of protests (right-wing and left-wing), strong anger was closely linked to both wanting to protest and actually protesting.
Fear and Hope: Context-Specific Emotions
Unlike anger, fear and hope didn’t have consistent effects
- In the right-wing movement, people said they had low fear, maybe because they didn’t trust health messages or because they felt personal freedom was more important than government control.
- In the left-wing movement, people said they had more fear, especially about money problems or feeling let down by institutions. But surprisingly, this fear pushed them to act, making them more likely to protest.
Hope was even less helpful in predicting action
- Extreme groups, on both sides, often said they had little hope in official solutions, so it didn’t do much to get them moving.
- But, not having hope might make people rely more on protesting to make a difference.
These findings show that emotions work differently based on beliefs, situation, and what feels threatening. This makes them strong but unpredictable drivers of political actions.
Psychological Similarities Between Left and Right Extremists
Even though they have different values and ideas, left and right extremists are similar in their psychology. These shared traits are the psychological “bend” in the horseshoe
Cognitive Rigidity
A tendency to stick firmly to one’s own view and reject other ideas. This inflexibility leads to
- Seeing things as only good or bad
- Not wanting to compromise
- Believing their “truth” is the only one and for their side alone
Group Identity and Tribalism
Strong loyalty to their own group leads to
- More divided views
- Seeing those outside the group as evil
- Strong trust within the group and distrust of outsiders
Emotional Arousal and Threat Sensitivity
Extreme political views often come with
- A stronger sense of threat to society
- Personal or group complaints
- Overly emotional reactions to news and opposing views
Moral Urgency and Absolutism
The moral way extremists see the world results in
- “The result justifies the method” thinking
- Seeing democracy as failing or corrupt
- Being more open to disruptive or even aggressive actions
Together, these traits not only strengthen activism but also prevent activists from thinking about themselves. This makes it rare for them to change their views and strengthens political division.
A Culturally Specific Case? Contextualizing the Research
France, with its long history of protests, is a good place to study political action. But this also brings up questions about how well this applies to other places.
Unique Features of French Activism
- Traditions like the French Revolution made protest a respected duty of citizens.
- French labor unions and left-leaning groups have long been trusted and good at organizing.
- Right-wing protest also has historical roots, often based on national pride or anti-global ideas.
What Might Change in Other Countries?
- In countries run by dictators, fear might stop activism no matter the emotion or beliefs.
- In societies where people don’t trust getting involved in civic life (like the U.S.), extremism might show up more online or in conspiracy groups.
- In cultures that value community, emotional reactions might be less obvious in favor of keeping group harmony.
So, while the psychological workings of horseshoe theory might be general, how they show up depends on the culture, politics, and history of a place.
Implications for Democratic Societies
While active protest is a healthy sign in democracies, its emotional and psychological basis can either help or hurt societies.
The Double-Edged Sword of Emotional Activism
- Pros: Makes people aware, gets people involved, questions unfair systems.
- Cons: Hurts polite talk, risks populism, leads to people getting tired and angry.
These trends affect different areas
- Public talk suffers when emotional reactions replace useful discussion.
- Social media makes anger stronger, creating echo chambers that copy and worsen extreme group behavior.
- Mental health experts now need to think about political identity and activism as causes of stress, especially for younger people deeply involved in social issues.
Can Psychology Help Reduce Political Polarization?
To deal with rising political extremism and division, we need more than just checking facts or political deals—we need psychological help, for both individuals and society.
Paths Toward Depolarization
- Emotional Regulation Programs
- Teaching emotional intelligence in schools and workplaces
- Helping people see what makes them angry and think more carefully
- Value-Based Dialogue Training
- Encouraging talks about shared human values
- Changing talks from “who is right?” to “what is important to us?”
- Building Cross-Ideology Networks
- Encouraging different viewpoints in community groups
- Finding common ground without weakening political identity
- Restoring Institutional Trust
- Showing openness and quick response
- Fighting wrong information with understanding, not just facts
In the end, efforts to reduce division must recognize that beliefs are built on emotions, identity, and community—not just logic.
Final Thoughts: Beyond Simplistic Labels
Horseshoe theory doesn’t say the far left and right are exactly the same in beliefs—but that they are psychologically similar. This small difference is key. Understanding shared emotional ways of acting helps us create better systems, without erasing all differences.
As societies around the world struggle with political division, we must ask not only what people believe—but how strongly they feel it, and what drives them. Only by looking deeper can we create democracies strong enough to handle strong feelings without falling apart into division.
Citations
- Marinthe, G., Kasper, A., Veillé, R., & Lalot, F. (2024). Collective action among the extremes? Relations between political ideology, political extremism, emotions, and collective action. Political Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.70008
